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Snowshoes

Maliseet Snowshoes, Photo Courtesy & Copyright Hudson Museum, University of Maine
Maliseet Snowshoe
Photo Courtesy & Copyright Hudson Museum, University of Maine

Imagine yourself living in Utah hundreds of years ago – before cars, before horses, before European influences. Summers provide you with abundant game and a multitude of plants for food and other materials, but the winters are harsh and full of snow. How did Native Americans manage to survive winter without modern amenities like snow plows and grocery stores? These hearty individuals owe their ability to hunt and travel in our snowy climate to one important tool – the snowshoe.

Snowshoes have been a part of life for humans in cold-weather climates for at least 6,000 years. From what historians can tell, people living in central Asia learned to strap thin planks of wood to their feet in order to help them travel through deep snow. Snowshoes work by increasing the surface area of the wearer’s foot, which distributes his or her weight across more snow – allowing them to basically float on top of the snow.

Western Subartic Antique Indian Snowshoes. circa 1890 – 1920., Photo Courtesy & Copyright VintageWinter.com
Western Subartic Antique
Indian Snowshoes. circa 1890 – 1920.
Photo Courtesy & Copyright VintageWinter.com

From this common ancestor in central Asia, both snowshoes and skis arose. Over the years, people began to spread out and move to new locations. Those who went west, into Europe, eventually developed the ski and those who went east across Siberia and into the Americas developed the snowshoe. The early snowshoes used by Native Americans were constructed of a wooden frame which was laced with babiche, un-tanned animal hide.

While we will likely never know why that first person decided to strap a plank of wood to their foot, perhaps they took their cue from Mother Nature. You see, humans are not the only ones who have figured out how to keep ourselves afloat on snow – some members of the animal world have too, and Utah holds two standout examples: the aptly named snowshoe hare and the Canada lynx. Both of these animals have extraordinarily large feet, which act much the same as our snowshoes, distributing the animal’s weight across a larger surface area.

Perhaps it’s no coincidence that both snowshoe hares and Canada lynx share this amazing adaptation. These two species are closely connected to each other in a special relationship: that of predator and prey. Leaving us to ponder the question: whose snowshoes came first, the lynx or the hare?

Eastern
Eastern Subartic Indian Snowshoes. circa 1855 – 1900
Photo Courtesy & Copyright VintageWinter.com

For more information and photos of traditional snowshoes, please visit our website at www.wildaboututah.org. Thank you to the Rocky Mountain Power Foundation for supporting the research and development of this Wild About Utah topic.

For the Stokes Nature Center and Wild About Utah, this is Andrea Liberatore.

Credits:

Photos: Courtesy Hudson Museum,
University of Maine
www.umaine.edu/hudsonmuseum/
Nick Thomas, SkiEO, VintageWinter www.vintagewinter.com
Text: Andrea Liberatore, Stokes Nature Center

Click to visit Vintage Snowshoe Slideshow, Courtesy & Copyright VintageWinter.com
Vintage Snowshoe Slideshow
Visit the Vintage Winter Sports Museum
Courtesy & Copyright VintageWinter.com

Additional Reading:

Prater, Gene. 1998. Snowshoeing, 3rd Edition. Seattle: The Mountaineers

Zeveloff, Samuel I. 1988. Mammals of the Intermountain West. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press

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Utah’s Conifer Trees

Juniper Leaves & Cones
Copyright © 2009 Linda Kervin

Two-needle Pinion Pine
Copyright © 2009 Linda Kervin

Norway Spruce Cones
Copyright © 2009 Linda Kervin

True Fir Needles
Copyright © 2009 Linda Kervin

Douglas Fir Cones
Copyright © 2009 Linda Kervin

Now that the leaves have fallen from the deciduous trees, we can fully appreciate Utah’s evergreen trees. Conifers are trees that bear their seeds in cones instead of producing flowers and fruits. Utah has five kinds of conifers; all with stiff, needle-like leaves that remain green throughout the winter. Traits of their needles and cones allow you to distinguish between our different types of conifers. Cones can be found still attached or scattered on the ground.

I will start with the junipers. These conifers have scaly, slightly fleshly leaves. Juniper seeds are embedded in a cone that resembles a green berry. The cones are round and densely fleshy. Junipers are widely adaptable here, from arid foothills to rocky alpine slopes.

Our pines collectively span this same elevation range. They are the only conifers that have cylindrical needles bundled in clusters of 2 to 5. The one exception to this is Single Leaf Pinon, which as you might guess has single, round needles. The count of pine needles is often diagnostic of their species. Pinons mix with junipers at low elevations; their oily, wingless seeds are the edible pinon nut. Bristlecone pines, found in southern Utah, can live for over 1000 years.

Spruces are conifers that many recognize from their own yards. The spruce needle leaves a peg on the stem when it drops, which gives their twigs a rough, nubbly surface. Spruces grow in a classic pyramidal shape.

Another montane group is the true firs. Their flat needle attaches smoothly to the twig. True firs have uniquely upright cones that gradually disintegrate without dropping to the ground. Crushed fir needles are wonderfully fragrant, redolent of tangerines or grapefruit. Perhaps that is why true firs are a favorite Christmas tree.

Douglas fir, despite its common name, is in a different genus than the true firs. Its cones are distinctive; having long, three-pointed, papery bracts that project out from amid the cone’s scales. Douglas fir is one of the west’s most valuable timber tress. Like the spruces and firs, it is a montane species.

Conifer trees are a great resource for Utah wildlife, providing food and shelter, especially in the icy cold of winter.

This is Linda Kervin for Bridgerland Audubon Society.

Credits:
Pictures: Copyright © 2009 Linda Kervin
Text: Linda Kervin and Jim Cane

Additional Reading:

Sibley, David Allen. 2009. The Sibley Guide to Trees. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Johnson, Carl M. 1991. Common Native Trees of Utah. Utah State University Extension Service. Logan, UT. 109 p

Kuhns, Michael R., Utah Forest Facts, Conifers for Utah, https://extension.usu.edu/forestry/Reading/Assets/PDFDocs/NR_FF/NRFF015.pdf, USU Extension

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Tracking Wildlife in Winter

Jumping Mouse Tracks
Photo Courtesy & Copyright 2011
Mark Larese-Casanova

Moose Tracks in Snow
Photo Courtesy & Copyright 2011
Mark Larese-Casanova

Cottontail Rabbit Browse & Scat
Photo Courtesy & Copyright 2011
Mark Larese-Casanova

Hi, this is Mark Larese-Casanova from the Utah Master Naturalist Program at Utah State University Extension.

The cold depth of winter is a time when many animals are hiding- either hibernating until the thaw of spring, or finding shelter and warmth in burrows, under logs, or in the tangled branches of evergreen trees.

However, snow falls in much of Utah, and even a dusting can reveal the stories of wildlife in winter. It’s a bit like solving a mystery. By reading the clues of animal tracks, we can know not only the type of animal that made them, but also where they were going and what they were doing.

The most obvious clue is the size of a track. Smaller animals make smaller tracks, and also sets of tracks that are generally closer together.

The shape of an animal track is also very revealing. Members of the canine family, including domestic dogs, coyotes, and fox, show four toes in front, each with a visible claw. Felines, including bobcats and mountain lions, also show four toes, but no claws. Tracks from members of the weasel family, such as mink, ermine, and skunks, show five toes, each with a claw. Raccoon, squirrel, and mouse tracks almost look like they were made by tiny human hands. The long tails of some animals, including deer mice, jumping mice, and weasels, often leave a characteristic line through the center of a set of tracks.

Combining the size and shape of tracks reveals further details about wildlife. The three inch long cloven hoof print of a mule deer is easily recognizable. An elk track looks almost identical, but is about four inches long. A similar moose track is even larger at six inches long.

Figuring out which animal made a track is only half of the story. If we follow tracks, we’ll surely find clues about an animal’s daily life. Wildlife often gather around sources of water that aren’t frozen, which are critical to winter survival. Perhaps rabbit tracks lead under a spruce tree where browsed branches and droppings indicate a frequent feeding spot. Maybe mouse tracks lead from tree to rock to log as it avoids owls and hawks.

While we are much more likely to see wildlife during the warmer months, winter gives us a chance to unravel the story of daily survival during the most difficult time of the year in Utah.

For Wild About Utah, I’m Mark Larese-Casanova.

Credits:
Images: Courtesy and Copyright Mark Larese-Casanova
Text:     Mark Larese-Casanova

Additional Reading:

Canadian Wildlife Federation: Tracking Down Winter Wildlife. https://www.cwf-fcf.org/en/action/how-to/outside/tracking-down-winter-wildlife.html

Murie, O. J. (1982). Animal Tracks. Peterson Field Guides. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin. https://www.amazon.com/Peterson-Field-Guide-Animal-Tracks/dp/061851743X

Vermont Nature and Outdoors: Tracking Winter Wildlife. https://www.ruralvermont.com/vermontweathervane/issues/winter/97012/vins97012_tracking.shtml

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Small birds in cold temperatures

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Black-Capped Chickadee, Copyright Stephen Peterson, Photographer
Black-Capped Chickadee
Copyright Stephen Peterson, Photographer

Hi, I’m Holly Strand from Utah State University’s Quinney College of Natural Resources.

There is a biological principle that states that species or populations that live near the poles tend to be bigger than those closer to the equator. Called Bergmann’s rule, this principle seems to work pretty well for some animal groups. Consider the size of polar bears, walruses, or penguins. An explanation behind Bergman’s rule is that large animals have a lower surface-to-volume ratio. Therefore they lose less body heart per unit of body mass. Furthermore, the larger you are, the more fat reserves you can carry around with you. Fat reserves represent potential energy, which is pretty useful to have in severe environments.

Large size could come in handy when dealing with Utah’s cold winter. But what about our little creatures? Like the small birds that forego a winter vacation in Arizona or Central America? Without the advantage of large size, how do they keep from icing over when the temperature drops?

Inactivity conserves energy so these little birds go to bed early and get up late in winter. That’s why your feeder looks so deserted on cold mornings. For a roosting spot, birds choose locations that offer protection from both the elements and from predators. The thick branches near the trunk of a conifer work nicely. And some species will seek out tree cavities or nest boxes. While roosting, birds may huddle together to create additional warmth.

Shivering helps a bird to increase its metabolic rate and generate heat when roosting. The drawback is that shivering requires a lot of calories.
An alternative approach that requires less energy is to simply reduce the core temperature of your body. The diminutive black-capped chickadee is well-known for surviving the cold using this adaptive form of self-induced hypothermia.

Good insulation is critical for survival. Some birds–like juncos and finches– put on extra fat. But all birds have feathers which are great for insulation. You’ve probably seen a bird fluff itself out, looking like a chubby feather ball. The bird does this to trap air next to its body to creating a nice warm down coat.

Bird parts not covered with feathers are more vulnerable to cold. So birds will bury their bills into their plumage and will tuck in their feet underneath.

During the shortened, active daytime hours little birds need to consume as many calories as possible. We can help them most by providing high energy food items such as oil sunflower and suet. For more information on what you can do to help Utah birds survive the winter chill, go to www.wildaboututah.org.

For Wild About Utah, I’m Holly Strand.

Credits:
Image: Courtesy Bridgerland Audubon Society, Copyright Stephen Peterson, Photographer
Text: Holly Strand

Sources & Additional Reading

Cooper, Sheldon J. and James A. Gessaman. 2005. Nocturnal Hypothermia in Seasonally Acclimatized Mountain Chickadees and Juniper Titmice. The Condor 107:151–15 https://www.uwosh.edu/faculty_staff/cooper/articles/Condor%20107%20151-155.pdf

Elkins, Norman. 1983. Weather and Bird Behavior. Calton, England: T& AD Poyser. https://www.amazon.com/Weather-Bird-Behaviour-Norman-Elkins/dp/0856610356

Kress, Steve. 2010. Audubon Guide to Winter Bird-Feeding. Audubon Magazine Published: November-December 2010
https://www.audubonmagazine.org/articles/living/audubon-guide-winter-bird-feeding

Marsh, R. L., and W. R. Dawson. 1989. Avian adjustments to cold. In: Advances in Comparative and Environmental Physiology, vol. 4, edited by L. C. H. Wang. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer‐Verlag, p. 205–253. Citation

Smith, Susan. 1991. The Black-Capped Chickadee: Behavioral Ecology and Natural History. Comstock Publishing
https://www.amazon.com/The-Black-Capped-Chickadee-Behavioral-Comstock/dp/0801497930

Yuhas, Daisy. 2013. How Birds Cope With Cold in Winter. Audubon Magazine Published: 12/12/2013 https://www.audubonmagazine.org/articles/birds/how-birds-cope-cold-winter