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Fossil Formation

Fossilized fish
Mioplosus labracoides
Copyright 2013 Stokes Nature Center
Andrea Liberatore, Photographer

Fossilized fish
Copyright 2013 Stokes Nature Center
Andrea Liberatore, Photographer

Horn Corals from Logan Canyon
Copyright 2013 Stokes Nature Center
Andrea Liberatore, Photographer

Fossilized leaf
Copyright 2013 Stokes Nature Center
Andrea Liberatore, Photographer

Fossilized shells
Copyright 2013 Stokes Nature Center
Andrea Liberatore, Photographer

The most popular school program that the Stokes Nature Center offers is a geology lesson for second grade. I’m not sure what happens between second grade and adulthood to make our general perception of geology go from exciting to boring, but you would be amazed at how excited second graders get over rocks, and especially, over fossils.

Fossils are really quite rare – a very specific set of conditions have to be met in order to create one. Most living things decompose fairly rapidly upon death, leaving no trace of their existence behind. In order to create a fossil, this process of decomposition needs to be halted fairly rapidly, which typically means that the body is quickly covered by some kind of sediment – like sand, or soil or mud. For this reason, most fossils are found embedded in sedimentary rock. If pressure and moisture levels are just right, over the course of millions of years the organism’s molecules will slowly be replaced by minerals from the surrounding sediments – eventually turning bone into stone.

Only somewhere around one in a billion bones will make it through this process. From there the fossil has to remain intact and identifiable through eons of tectonic plate movement, earthquakes, and mountain uplift. Then, in order to be found it has to be located near enough to the earth’s surface, and in such a place where a human might come across it. Some geologists estimate that only 1 in 10,000 species that have ever lived have made it into the known fossil record, which makes me wonder what discoveries still await us.

Fortunately for us, prehistoric Utah was a place where fossilization happened with some regularity, as evidenced by places like Dinosaur National Monument and the Escalante Petrified Forest. Did you know that Utah has a state fossil? That distinction goes to the allosaurus, a predatory dinosaur that thrived during the Late Jurassic period. Numerous skeletons found in east-central Utah range in size from 10 – 40 feet in length, meaning this fearsome creature may have rivaled it’s more famous cousin Tyrannosaurus Rex for top predator status.

With such a rich fossil history, it’s not out of the question that you might stumble onto something truly amazing during a routine hike. Can you keep your find? Well, that depends on two things: the type of fossil, and whose land it was found on. On public lands in Utah, fossils of vertebrates cannot be collected, while fossils of invertebrates and plants can be. Private land owners have full rights to the fossils found on their property. With all fossils, it’s a great idea to report your find to the US Geological Survey so that your discovery can be documented for public or scientific research, display or education.

Fossil creation is an incredible phenomenon that has allowed us to glimpse the earth’s history in ways that would otherwise be completely hidden. Thanks to fossils, we can envision a prehistoric landscape filled with giant ferns, enormous dragonflies, long-necked allosauruses, and flying pterodactyls. Without the evidence in the fossil record, I doubt that even the most imaginative person among us could have envisioned such an amazing array of life.

For the Stokes Nature Center and Wild About Utah, this is Andrea Liberatore.

Credits:

Photos: Courtesy & © Stokes Nature Center, logannature.org
Text:    Andrea Liberatore, Stokes Nature Center, logannature.org

Additional Reading:

State of Utah, Utah Geological Survey, Dinosaurs & Fossils (2011) https://geology.utah.gov/utahgeo/dinofossil/index.htm

McCalla, Carole and Eldredge, Sandy (2009) What should you do if you find a fossil? Utah Geological Survey. Accessible online at: https://geology.utah.gov/surveynotes/gladasked
/gladfossil_collecting.htm

Trefil, James (1996) 101 Things You Don’t Know About Science and Nobody Else Does Either. Houghton Mifflin Company: New York, NY, https://www.amazon.com/Things-Dont-About-Science-Either/dp/0395877407

Bryson, Bill (2003) A Short History of Nearly Everything. Broadway Books. New York, NY, https://www.amazon.com/Short-History-Nearly-Everything-Illustrated/dp/0307885151

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Why Some Birds Flock in the Vee Formation

Why Some Birds Flock in the Vee Formation: Canada Geese Flying in a V Formation. Courtesy & Copyright, Brenda Bott, Photographer
Canada Geese Flying in
a V Formation
Courtesy & Copyright © Brenda Bott, Photographer
Spring is that magical season when avian migrants return north from more balmy climates. Utah’s migrants range from ponderous pelicans to tiny hummingbirds, honking geese to crying curlews. Many arrive as they departed, in flocks.Why Some Birds Flock in the Vee Formation

Kevin Colver: Songbirds of Yellowstone, Canada Goose)

But why fly in a flock at all? One reason is predator evasion, the same reason that minnows school and elk, bison and deer bunch in herds. Embedded in a swirling mass of birds called a swarm flock, an individual bird is less likely to be picked off by an aerial predator, such as a falcon or a Cooper’s Hawk. A raptor diving into a swarm flock risks collision and injury. Targeting a bird in a swirling group is visually difficult too. Flying in a flock gains safety, but at what cost? Pigeons flying in a swarm flock take shallower, more frequent wing strokes than a solo bird. Faster wing beats probably provide more control to better negotiate turbulent aerial traffic, but extra flapping costs more in energy.

In contrast, pelicans and other big birds often fly in tidy formation flocks. Flying in a vee formation, a trailing pelican’s heart beats 13% slower than the lead bird. That’s because a trailing pelican flaps less than the leader. Unlike pigeons, then, a pelican flying in a formation flock uses less energy, not more. Big birds with slow wing beats share aerodynamic attributes with airplanes. Some of the air under their wings swirls out from under the tips, creating a spiraling vortex that trails the wing tip. Flying in a tight vee formation, each trailing bird gets a bit of lift from the upwash created by that vortex, and so it can flap a little less and glide a little more. Lead birds tire more quickly, so leaders change periodically. Leaders lose their zip, not their way. In a vee, birds also have their flock mates in good view, which is needed for the tight precision of a formation flock.

(Kevin Colver: Songbirds of Yellowstone, Sandhill Crane)

Pelicans, swans, geese, cranes, ibis, ducks, godwits, they all ply the Utah sky in formation flocks. They may be bird-brained, but our bigger migrants know a thing or two about aerodynamics.

Credits:
Images: Courtesy & Copyright Brenda Bott, Photographer
Text: Jim Cane, Bridgerland Audubon Society https://www.bridgerlandaudubon.org

Video:

Spectacular flock (called a “murmuration”) of starlings, Sophie Windsor Clive & Liberty Smith, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iRNqhi2ka9k As viewed from Islandsandrivers.com. Contains advertisements.

Van Ijken, Jan, Flight of the Starlings, National Geographic, Nov 15, 2016, https://youtu.be/V4f_1_r80RY
See also https://www.janvanijken.com/film-projects/the-art-of-flying/theartofflyingfullversion/

Additional Reading:

Avian flight by John J. Videler. 2005. New York, Oxford University Press. 258 pp.
Contents:

  • Acquisition of knowledge
  • The flight apparatus
  • Feathers for flight
  • Aerodynamics
  • Evolution of bird flight
  • Bird flight modes
  • The bird flight engine
  • Energy required for flight
  • Comparing the metabolic costs of flight

Usherwood JR, Stavrou M, Lowe JC, Roskilly K, Wilson AM. 2011. Flying in a flock comes at a cost in pigeons. Nature. 2011 Jun 22;474(7352):494-7. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51242928_Flying_in_a_flock_comes_at_a_cost_in_pigeons

Weimerskirch H; Martin J; Clerquin Y; Alexandre P; Jiraskova S. 2001. Energy saving in flight formation. Nature. 413: 697-698. https://eol.org/data_objects/16885552

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Oolites

Click to view larger image of the Utah's Oolitic Sand, Photo Courtesy and Copyright Mark Larese-Casanova
Utah’s Oolitic Sand, Photo Courtesy and Copyright Mark Larese-Casanova

Hi, this is Mark Larese-Casanova from the Utah Master Naturalist Program at Utah State University Extension.

Imagine if prehistoric brine shrimp were responsible for one of the finest examples of architecture in Salt Lake City today.

Okay, so it may be a bit of a stretch, but let me explain. In a previous episode of Wild About Utah, I discussed the life cycle of brine shrimp and the important role that they play in the Great Salt Lake Ecosystem. Well, as the billions of brine shrimp feed on bacteria in Great Salt Lake, they excrete waste in the form of tiny fecal pellets. These pellets, along with sand grains and other bits of debris, eventually settle to the bottom of Great Salt Lake.

In shallow areas of the lake, where wind and waves routinely mix the water, these small particles gradually accumulate layers of calcium carbonate, forming an oolite (spelled o-o-l-i-t-e). This is very similar to how a pearl, also layers of calcium carbonate around a small particle, is formed within the shell of an oyster or mussel. The main difference, aside from a pearl being much larger, is that oolites are typically oblong, rather than round. The beaches on the west side of Antelope Island are a great place to find oolitic sand, which will look and feel as though you have a handful of tiny pearls.

Click to view larger image of the Utah's Oolitic Sandstone, Photo Courtesy and Copyright Mark Larese-Casanova
Utah’s Oolitic Sandstone
Photo Courtesy & Copyright
Mark Larese-Casanova

Around 50 million years ago, large fresh- and salt-water lakes covered parts of Utah, and in these areas, vast amounts of sediments, including oolites, were deposited. Over time, these oolites were compressed and cemented together into limestone.

A quarry near Ephraim in Sanpete County supplied oolitic limestone for the construction of the Governor’s Mansion in 1902 and the original Salt Lake City Public Library in 1905. The Library building, located at 15 South State Street, eventually housed the Hansen Planetarium and is now home to the O.C. Tanner flagship store. The building underwent an extensive restoration just a couple of years ago, and now serves as a shining example of neoclassical architecture in our capitol city.

The truth is, there are tens of millions of years separating oolitic limestone from our modern-day brine shrimp. So, we can’t exactly say that prehistoric brine shrimp were responsible for the existence of the O.C. Tanner building. But, it’s fun to imagine precious gems from around the world housed in a beautiful building constructed from the ‘pearls’ of Great Salt Lake.

Click to view larger image of the historic OC Tanner building made from oolitic sandstone (This building formerly housed the Salt Lake Library and Hansen Planetarium), Photo Courtesy and Copyright Mark Larese-Casanova
Historic OC Tanner Building
(formerly the Salt Lake Library
and later the Hansen Planetarium)
Photo Courtesy & Copyright
Mark Larese-Casanova

For Wild About Utah, I’m Mark Larese-Casanova.
Credits:

Images: Courtesy and copyright Mark Larese-Casanova

Text:     Mark Larese-Casanova, Utah Master Naturalist Program at Utah State University Extension.
Additional Reading:

Utah Geological Survey https://geology.utah.gov/utahgeo/rockmineral/collecting/oolitic.htm

Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Great Salt Lake Ecosystem Program
https://wildlife.utah.gov/gsl/facts/oolitic_sand.php

Salt Lake Brine Shrimp, https://saltlakebrineshrimp.com/harvest/

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2013 Desert Wildflower Forecast

Click for a larger view of a Dark-eyed 'Oregon' Junco Male, Junco hyemalis montanus, Courtesy and copyright 2008 Ryan P. O'Donnell
Claret cup cactus in bloom
Arches National Park
Echinocereus triglochidiatus
var. melancanthus
Courtesy NPS, Neal Herbert, Photographer

Hi, I’m Holly Strand.

It’s showtime for desert wildflowers in CA, AZ and NM. But in Utah’s deserts think April or May. Within those months the exact timing, type and quantity of blooms are highly variable. Flowering depends upon the pattern of precipitation from fall onward and on spring temperatures, sunlight and elevation. And of course, on the specific ecological requirements of each particular plant.

Annuals are plentiful in the desert. Annual plants germinate, grow, flower, set seed and die all within one season—often in the spring. To avoid water stress—some annuals will start their life cycle only when there is significant moisture. If it’s dry, they may stay in seed form waiting for better conditions. Likewise, many perennials—plants that live more than 2 years—can remain below ground as dormant bulbs, corms or roots. But when conditions are right, these water stress avoiders –both annuals and perennials–will flourish. When this happens we call it a “good year” for wildflowers.

I couldn’t find a wildflower hotline for Utah—so I called different parks representing Utah’s 3 different desert regions to get a flower forecast for 2013.

Nothing much is happening yet on the Colorado Plateau in and around Arches and Canyonlands National Parks. It’s been pretty cold according to staff ranger Sharon Brussell. So the appearance of spring flowers is somewhat delayed. But in April we can expect to see evening primrose, twinpods and milk vetches. And in late April-early May, Princes’ plume, globemallow and yucca. The scarlet blooms of claret cup cactus will follow. If you miss what you are looking for in Arches or the Needles district, just go higher to Islands in the Sky, adds Nathaniel Clark of the Canyonlands National Park. Here–because of the elevation–flowering of similar species occurs 2-4 weeks later.

Snow Canyon is in the Mojave Desert region. Park Manager Kristen Comella told me that this is likely to be a typical year for wildflowers. Spectacled pod and lotus vetch are already out. Soon we’ll see bright yellow flowers of the Mojave’s signature creosote bush, and the deep purple flowers of indigo bush. Prickly pear and Utah yucca will soon follow. If you want to see early spring blooms on Joshua trees, go south on old highway 91 from Gunlock to see Utah’s one and only Joshua Tree forest.

To find out what’s happening in the Great Basin I spoke with Ben Roberts at Nevada’s Great Basin National Park. He says there has been a bit less precipitation than normal but it should still be an OK year for flowers. So far he’s only spotted one — Nevada lomatium. This brave little plant blooms even when there is snow still lying around. From a distance you might even think the low-lying white flowers are a patch of snow. In April desert paintbrush will appear, as will arrow-leaf balsamroot and purple sage. Wild iris, blue flax and prickly pear will follow in May.

For sources and pictures and suggestions for good desert wildflower hikes go to www.wildaboututah.org

For Wild About Utah, I’m Holly Strand.

Credits:
Image: Courtesy NPS, Arches National Park, Neal Herbert, Photographer
Text: Holly Strand

Recommended hikes for viewing wildflowers

Great Basin National Park (Great Basin)
Baker Creek Trail
Lehman Creek Trail
Pole Canyon Trail

Arches National Park (Colorado Plateau)
Primitive Loop

Canyonlands National Park (Colorado Plateau)
Neck Spring Trail—Islands in the Sky

Snow Canyon State Park (Mojave Desert)
Hidden Canyon
Whiptail Trails

Sources & Additional Reading

Arches Flower Guide (by color, month, name and keys)https://www.nps.gov/arch/naturescience/flowerguide.htm 

Comstock, J. and J. Ehrlinger 1992. Plant adaptations in the Great Basin and Colorado Plateau. Great Basin Naturalist. Vol. 52. No. 3

Fertig, Walter. 2010. Utah’s Mojave Desert Flora. Sego Lily, newsletter of the Utah Native Plant Society. Vol. 33, No. 2. https://www.unps.org/segolily/Sego2010MarApr.pdf

McMahon, James. 1985. Deserts (National Audubon Society Nature Guides) NY: Alfred A. Knopf https://www.amazon.com/Deserts-National-Audubon-Society-Nature/dp/0394731395

Williams, David. 2000. A Naturalist’s Guide to Canyon Country. A Falcon Guide. Helena MT. Published in cooperation with Canyonlands Natural History Association.https://www.amazon.com/Naturalists-Guide-Canyon-Country-Williams/dp/1560447834