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Citius, Altius, Fortius

Snowshoe Hare summer coat image courtesy US National Parks Service
Snowshoe Hare Summer Coat
Courtesy US National Parks Service

Snowshoe Hare winter coat image courtesy US Forest Service https://www.fs.fed.us Snowshoe Hare Winter Coat
Courtesy USDA Forest Service

Hi, I’m Holly Strand from the Quinney College of Natural Resources at Utah State University

The upcoming winter Olympics in Sochi bring back fond memories of Utah’s stint as host of the winter games. You may recall that “Powder,” a playful snowshoe hare was among Salt Lake City’s three Olympic mascots. Powder represented “faster” in the Olympic triumvirate (try-um-virate) motto of “Citius, Altius, Fortius” (or Faster, Higher Stronger). And the little snowshoe hare needs to be fast. For according to USU wildlife biologist Dustin Ranglack Snowshoe hares are the Snickers bars of the forest. They’re a popular treat for a host of carnivores, including coyotes, foxes, lynx, bobcats, bears and birds of prey.

Hares are fast in general. They can reach 40 miles per hour, and can leap more than ten feet (three meters). But this hare has extra-large, wide feet with more fur and larger toes. Like permanent snowshoes, these feet are ideally suited for racing from predators in deep mountain snow.

In spite of its speed, the snowshoe hare’s best mechanism of defense is camouflage. In winter, its soft, fine fur turns white to blend into the snowy terrain. As spring thaws the wintry landscape, the hare’s fur turns brown or reddish-brown to help it elude predators. Only the tips of the ears remain dark throughout the year.

Scientists have observed that climate change may affect the survival of animals that undergo seasonal coat color changes. For example, with a shortened winter, a white-coated snowshoe hare is a sitting duck on brown earth in full view of ravenous predators.

But interestingly there is already a lot of variability in the timing of individual hares camouflaged coat. Amount of sunlight may start the color change in a snowshoe hare population. But once the process starts, the timing of full coat transformation — which can take up to two months — is unique. Perhaps this is due to the fact that—even before climate change– there was always been some variability in the onset of winter snow cover. Anyway, this variability in color change gives scientists hope that the snowshoe hare will be able to adapt its timing to seasonal changes in the future.
For sources and pictures go to WWW.wildaboututah.org.

For the Quinney College of Natural Resources, I’m Holly Strand

Credits:

Images: Courtesy US Forest Service and US National Parks Service

Text: Mary-Ann Muffoletto, Holly Strand, Quinney College of Natural Resources

Sources & Additional Reading

Snowshoe Hare Lepus Americanus, National Geographic, https://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/snowshoe-hare.html

Mills, L. Scott, Marketa Zimovaa, Jared Oylerb, Steven Runningb, John T. Abatzoglouc, and Paul M. Lukacsa. 2013 Camouflage mismatch in seasonal coat color due to decreased snow duration. PNAS. https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2013/04/10/1222724110#aff-1

Rossner, Hillary. 2012. The Color of Bunny: Can snowshoe hares outrace climate change? Feb. 6, 2012. High Country News. https://www.hcn.org/issues/44.2/can-snowshoe-hares-adapt-to-climate-change

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Utah’s Rich Skiing History

The ski lift at Snow Park (now Deer Valley) in the 1940s
The ski lift at Snow Park
(now Deer Valley) in the 1940s
Visit Summit County as found on
Ilovehistory.utah.gov

Hi, this is Mark Larese-Casanova from the Utah Master Naturalist Program at Utah State University Extension.

Since the early pioneers, Utah’s mountains have been the basis of important industry and a source of great wealth. Some of Utah’s better-known mountain towns, such as Park City, were originally established as mining camps in the late 1800s. While some silver and gold mining still occurs in Utah, these days we find wealth in the form of another color- white. Snow, that is.

Skiing in Utah is so popular that people travel from around the world to ski here. We’re well known for our light, dry powder, and steep terrain. Each year, Utah’s fourteen ski resorts record several million skier day visits.

But, before skiing was a popular recreational activity, it was an important mode of transportation. For trappers, miners, and other early winter inhabitants of Utah’s mountains, travelling by skis was a means of survival. It was Norwegian immigrants who first brought skis to Utah, and one of the earliest records of skiing comes from the town of Alta, where, in 1870, the postman delivered mail to the town on skis. Ski touring grew in popularity, and the Wasatch Mountain Club routinely led multi-day trips in the 1910’s and ‘20’s. Professional ski jumping events, drawing thousands of spectators, began along the Wasatch foothills around 1930.

Until the Great Depression caused the value of silver to plummet, Alta was a boomtown for silver mining. The abundant snow was troublesome for the miners, and a giant avalanche destroyed half of the town in 1873. It wasn’t until the early 1930s that the mayor (and sole inhabitant of the town at the time) began exploring the idea of promoting skiing at Alta. After all, Alta holds the state record for highest average annual snowfall of 516 inches!

Alf Engen, a native Norwegian who came to Alta in 1935 as a foreman with the Civilian Conservation Corps reforestation effort, was instrumental in helping the US Forest Service select suitable areas for developing skiing. Modern skiing was established in Utah when cable tows started running at Brighton in 1937, and the Collins chairlift fired up at Alta in 1939 and offered rides for only 25 cents each, or $1.50 for the day. The next decade saw development of several other ski resorts, including Snowbasin and Beaver Mountain.

Utah’s ski resorts and backcountry continue to offer wonderful opportunities to enjoy the wintry outdoors with family and friends, to learn a new sport, and to take part in Utah’s rich skiing history. Oh, and for 5th and 6th graders around the state, Ski Utah offers Ski Passports that include three free lift tickets at each of Utah’s ski resorts.

For Wild About Utah, I’m Mark Larese-Casanova.

Credits:

Photo: Summit County on Ilovehistory.utah.gov
Text:     Mark Larese-Casanova

Additional Reading:

Arave, J. Utah Skiing History. Utah Travel Center. https://utahtravelcenter.com/activities/skiing/utah_history.htm

Bowman, Anthony W., “From Silver to Skis: A History of Alta, Utah, and Little Cottonwood Canyon, 1847-1966” (1967). All Graduate Theses and Dissertations. Paper 1642.
 https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/1642

Hullinger, J. Alf Engen. Utah History Encyclopedia. https://www.historytogo.utah.gov/people/alfengen.html

Notarianni, P.F. Mining. Utah History Encyclopedia. https://historytogo.utah.gov/utah_chapters/mining_and_railroads/mining.html

Utah Ski History FAQs. Alf Engen Ski Museum. https://www.engenmuseum.org/utah-ski-history-faqs

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Algae and Moss

Filamentous algae growing in the Colorado River near Lee’s Ferry. Copyright 2011 Wayne Wurtsbaugh, Photographer
Filamentous algae growing in the Colorado River near Lee’s Ferry
Copyright 2011
Wayne Wurtsbaugh, Photographer

Tortula ruralis is one of the few mosses that are common in the desert. Licensed through Wikimedia, Kristian Peters, PhotographerTortula ruralis
one of the few mosses
that are common in the desert
Courtesy Wikimedia
Licensed under CCA 3.0
Kristian Peters, Photographer

Hi, I’m Holly Strand from Utah State University’s Quinney College of Natural Resources.

Algae and moss are plentiful in and around Utah streams and lakes. But lots of people confuse these two kinds of plants. So let’s sort out what each one is.

First, both moss and algae are ancient plant forms that are commonly found in wet or moist places. As primary producers both algae and moss use sunlight to fix energy, giving off oxygen as a byproduct.

Neither algae nor moss has a vascular system to transport water so vertical growth is not their strong suit. Rarely more than an inch tall, a cushion of moss is really a tight cluster of individual moss plants. Bunching helps support the individual moss structures and helps conserve water. Meanwhile, algae comes in many forms, from microscopic one-celled diatoms to huge colonies of giant floating mats, or long flowing filaments. Algae also comes in many colors, such as green, gold, brown and red.

So where are they found? Moss loves shade. Look for it in the deep shadowy gorges and box canyons of the Colorado and Green Rivers. It also thrives in drainages off cliffs and around springs. Damp meadows, tree bases, bogs, and pond edges make great moss habitat. You will seldom find moss in saline environments. Some moss species live submerged in water but most live on land. With the sun-loving algae, the opposite is true—most live in water but some species will grow on damp soil and on the shaded sides of damp walls and trees.

Moss grows very slowly and lives a long time. So it needs a stable environment in which to grow. In contrast, algae is extremely fast-growing. A generation might last from one to several days. Algae is also extremely sensitivity to chemical, temperature and light conditions. Therefore, the presence, absence or quantity of algal species can be a useful indicator of ecosystem health. For instance, your aquatic system is probably in pretty good shape if a number of different species are flourishing. However, if the water is dominated by one or just a few fast growing species and the water starts to turn color—usually green—the system is seriously out of whack. Called algal blooms, these dramatic explosions of growth are usually the result of excess phosphorus or nitrogen runoff in the water.

During blooms the algal mass produces lots of oxygen during the day, but it consumes more than it makes at night. Further, more dead organic material is produced which eats up more oxygen. The result is a severe oxygen deficit. Resident fish, insects, and plants are deprived of oxygen and end up suffocating.

Go to www.wildaboututah.org for links to information on how to prevent algal blooms.

Thanks to 4th grade classes of Fallon Farokhi and Andrea Bostwick for their interest in moss, algae and water quality. Funded by an environmental education grant from the EPA Region 8, the 4th graders investigated and reported on water quality issues in the Bear River watershed. Also, thanks to Wayne Wurtsbaugh and Chuck Hawkins of Utah State University’s College of Natural Resources for their expertise in writing this piece.

For Wild About Utah, I’m Holly Strand.

Credits:
Image: Algae, Courtesy & Copyright Wayne Wurtsbaugh, Utah State University, Department of Watershed Sciences
Image: Moss, Licensed through the Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-SA 3.0) Courtesy Wikimedia, Kristian Peters, Photographer
Text: Holly Strand, Utah State University, Quinney College of Natural Resources

Sources & Additional Reading

US EPA. Harmful Algal Blooms https://www2.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/harmful-algal-blooms

US EPA. The Effects of Nutrient Pollution and Harmful Algal Blooms] https://www2.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/effects

US EPA. What You Can Do to Reduce Nutrient Pollution https://www2.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/what-you-can-do

Barbour, M.T., J. Gerritsen, B.D. Snyder, and J.B. Stribling. 1999. Rapid Bioassessment Protocols for Use in Streams and Wadeable Rivers: Periphyton, Benthic Macroinvertebrates and Fish, Second Edition. EPA 841-B-99-002. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; Office of Water; Washington, D.C. https://water.epa.gov/scitech/monitoring/rsl/bioassessment/

Fisher, S. G. 1995. Stream ecosystems of the Western United States. In River and Stream Ecosystems of the World. C. E. Cushing, K. W. Cummins, and G. W. Minshall eds. University of California Press, Berkley. 817 pp. [Updated October 31, 2024] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261545076_River_and_stream_ecosystems_of_the_world_edited_by_C_E_Cushing_K_W_Cummins_and_G_W_Minshall_University_of_California_Press_Berkeley_2006_No_of_pages_817_ISBN_0-520-24567-9

Flowers, Seville, Mosses: Utah and the West. Edited by Arthur Holmgren, First Published by Brigham Young University Press, 1973 [Updated October 31, 2024] Blackburn Press, July 1, 2001, https://www.amazon.com/Mosses-Utah-West-Seville-Flowers/dp/1930665253

Moss, Brian. 2010. Ecology of Freshwaters. A View for the Twenty-First Century. Wiley-Blackwell. https://www.amazon.com/Ecology-Fresh-Waters-Twenty-First-Century/dp/1444334743

Utah Division of Water Quality. Nutrients in Utah’s Waters https://www.nutrients.utah.gov/ [Updated Oct 31, 2024] https://deq.utah.gov/water-quality/headwater-criteria-nutrients-in-utahs-waters

Utah Water Research Laboratory. 2002. Understanding Nitrate Pollution in Small and Native American Communities. Water Treatment Technology Program Report No. 53. Washington DC, U.S. Department of the Interior.

Kimmerer, Robin Wall, Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses, Oregon State University Press, March 1, 2003, https://www.amazon.com/Gathering-Moss-Natural-Cultural-History/dp/0870714996 [Accessed Oct 31, 2024]

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Snowshoes

Maliseet Snowshoes, Photo Courtesy & Copyright Hudson Museum, University of Maine
Maliseet Snowshoe
Photo Courtesy & Copyright Hudson Museum, University of Maine

Imagine yourself living in Utah hundreds of years ago – before cars, before horses, before European influences. Summers provide you with abundant game and a multitude of plants for food and other materials, but the winters are harsh and full of snow. How did Native Americans manage to survive winter without modern amenities like snow plows and grocery stores? These hearty individuals owe their ability to hunt and travel in our snowy climate to one important tool – the snowshoe.

Snowshoes have been a part of life for humans in cold-weather climates for at least 6,000 years. From what historians can tell, people living in central Asia learned to strap thin planks of wood to their feet in order to help them travel through deep snow. Snowshoes work by increasing the surface area of the wearer’s foot, which distributes his or her weight across more snow – allowing them to basically float on top of the snow.

Western Subartic Antique Indian Snowshoes. circa 1890 – 1920., Photo Courtesy & Copyright VintageWinter.com
Western Subartic Antique
Indian Snowshoes. circa 1890 – 1920.
Photo Courtesy & Copyright VintageWinter.com

From this common ancestor in central Asia, both snowshoes and skis arose. Over the years, people began to spread out and move to new locations. Those who went west, into Europe, eventually developed the ski and those who went east across Siberia and into the Americas developed the snowshoe. The early snowshoes used by Native Americans were constructed of a wooden frame which was laced with babiche, un-tanned animal hide.

While we will likely never know why that first person decided to strap a plank of wood to their foot, perhaps they took their cue from Mother Nature. You see, humans are not the only ones who have figured out how to keep ourselves afloat on snow – some members of the animal world have too, and Utah holds two standout examples: the aptly named snowshoe hare and the Canada lynx. Both of these animals have extraordinarily large feet, which act much the same as our snowshoes, distributing the animal’s weight across a larger surface area.

Perhaps it’s no coincidence that both snowshoe hares and Canada lynx share this amazing adaptation. These two species are closely connected to each other in a special relationship: that of predator and prey. Leaving us to ponder the question: whose snowshoes came first, the lynx or the hare?

Eastern
Eastern Subartic Indian Snowshoes. circa 1855 – 1900
Photo Courtesy & Copyright VintageWinter.com

For more information and photos of traditional snowshoes, please visit our website at www.wildaboututah.org. Thank you to the Rocky Mountain Power Foundation for supporting the research and development of this Wild About Utah topic.

For the Stokes Nature Center and Wild About Utah, this is Andrea Liberatore.

Credits:

Photos: Courtesy Hudson Museum,
University of Maine
www.umaine.edu/hudsonmuseum/
Nick Thomas, SkiEO, VintageWinter www.vintagewinter.com
Text: Andrea Liberatore, Stokes Nature Center

Click to visit Vintage Snowshoe Slideshow, Courtesy & Copyright VintageWinter.com
Vintage Snowshoe Slideshow
Visit the Vintage Winter Sports Museum
Courtesy & Copyright VintageWinter.com

Additional Reading:

Prater, Gene. 1998. Snowshoeing, 3rd Edition. Seattle: The Mountaineers

Zeveloff, Samuel I. 1988. Mammals of the Intermountain West. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press